How when and where life will begin on another planet after Earth.

How, when and where life will begin on another planet after Earth.

It has been centuries now since humankind looked up to the sky and wondered, is there any other life out there apart from our own? Ever since that question has been asked, it has been a mystery. Our solar system has Sun and eight planets. The Sun is a Red Giant Star and in distant future it will engulf Mercury, Venus and probably Earth. The size and luminosity of the Sun is continuously increasing from its birth. By rearranging given astronomical data, this paper explores that in distant future, due to increasing size and luminosity of the Sun characteristics of the terrestrial planets have been shifting from one planet to another that would bring life on one of the planet in our solar system after 1 duky’s Unit. 1 duky’s unit is the time from now to the time when Mercury would get engulfed in the Sun. It unlocks so many questions like why Earth has one Moon but Mars has two, how Venus became Earth’s evil twin, what is the roll of asteroid belt in our solar system, how life began on Earth, where was it before Earth and where it will be on another planet after Earth?

Keywords : - Red Gaint Star, Luminosity and Size of the Sun, Life on another planet, terrestrial planet, Duky’s Unit

 

I. INTRODUCTION

 

It has been centuries now since humankind looked up to the sky and wondered, is there any other life out there apart from our own? Evidence that the scientists found might prove that humans are not alone in this universe or it also might not be true. Humans have created fiction of other life forms to fill out our curiosity of the unknown to us. Many scientists and astronomers are trying to find evidence of other living creatures and things out there in the universe. For example, NASA has discovered that there might be life on the fourth planet from the sun, Mars. According to NASA administrator Daniel S. Goldin issued a statement saying, "NASA has made a startling discovery." He called the evidence "exciting, even compelling, but not conclusive. I want every to understand that we are not talking about 'little green men.' These are extremely small, single-cell creatures that somewhat resemble bacteria on Earth. There is no evidence or suggestion that any higher life form ever existed on Mars." Many NASA's scientists do back up their statements with evidence although other scientists do not agree with NASA's announcement about life on Mars. Ever since NASA has discovered living things on Mars, Mars has been the center of attention in the world of science.

 

Our solar system has one star and eight planets out of which Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are called the terrestrial planets because they have solid, rocky surfaces. Scientists believe that Venus as well as Mars has some sort of signs of life on it. Researchers who specialize in stellar evolution have long known that the

 

 

inner planets are in danger. The trouble starts in the distant future when the Sun's core runs out of hydrogen fuel for nuclear fusion. To keep the fires burning, the Sun will begin to fuse hydrogen outside the core, in a layer closer to the stellar surface. This will turn the Sun into a red giant, at least 200 times wider than it is today. Mercury, Venus, Earth and possibly even Mars could be engulfed. Sun’s size is not increasing in a year rather it has already taken 4.5 billion years and yet it will take approximately 8 to 9 billion years more until it become white dwarf.

 

Mercury is the first planet in our solar system. Mercury is a rocky planet, also known as a terrestrial planet. Mercury has a solid, cratered surface, much like Earth's moon. It has no moons. The plant and animal life of the Earth could not live on Mercury.

 

VENUS is called the Earth's "twin," its surface conditions appear to be very different from those of the Earth. Geologists have had difficulty learning about the surface of Venus because the planet is always surrounded by thick clouds of sulfur dioxide and drops of sulfuric acid. For the most part, lava flow fields are associated with volcanoes. The atmosphere of Venus consists primarily of carbon dioxide, with small amounts of nitrogen and water vapor. This planet has also no Moon like Mercury. Takeshi Imamura says "In so many ways, Venus is similar to Earth. It has about the same mass, is approximately the same distance from the Sun, and is made of the same basic materials. "Yet the two worlds ended up so different. We want to know why." Although a parade of U.S. and Soviet spacecraft has visited Venus since 1961, no one yet knows how it became Earth's "evil twin." Did it suffer from a case of global warming run amok – or something else?

 

The third planet of our solar system is Earth. The life on Earth is possible only due to presence of different elements, metals, non-metals, gases, the ozone layer and the sufficient distance from the Sun. Earth has two polar ice caps i.e., North Pole, South Pole. Today the axial tilt on Earth is 23.45 degrees. It is believed that there was intense volcanic activity for the first billion years of the Earth's existence. The early atmosphere was probably mostly carbon dioxide, with little or no oxygen. Earth has one natural Moon that continues rotating around Earth and from the ranging experiments, scientific Measurements show that the Moon is receding away from Earth at a rate of about 3.8 centimeters per year. Scientists believe that the Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago. Strangely our Sun is now 30% brighter than it was at birth. As ages it will gradually grow even brighter and more powerful. In 1.1 billion years from now, the Sun will be 10% brighter than it is today. This extra energy will cause a moist greenhouse effect in the beginning, similar to the runaway warming on Venus. But then the Earth’s atmosphere will dry out as water vapor is lost to space, never to return. In 3.5 billion the years from now, the Sun will be 40% brighter than it is today. It will be so hot that the oceans will boil and water vapor will be lost to space as well. The ice caps will get permanently melted, and snow will become ancient history; life will become unable to survive anywhere on the surface of the Earth. The Earth will resemble dry hot Venus. A research by Shyamkant Padoley (an eminent botanist) makes us strong claim that Tulsi gives out oxygen for 20 hours and ozone for 4 hours a day along with the formation of nascent oxygen which absorbs harmful gases like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide from the environment. Also Scientists found some species of micro-animals named ‘Tardigrades’. Since 1778, over 1,150 tardigrade species have been identified. Tardigrades are known to be able to go for decades without food or water to survive direct exposure to dangerous radiations.

 

Fourth planet of our solar system is Mars. Mars and Earth are very similar in terms of their day length. The actual surface area of Mars is almost exactly the same as all the dry land on Earth, all shrunk to fit together without the ocean. Mars has two polar ice caps. The Mars was too hot in the past; we are saying so because the big volcano’s which are too high as compared to Everest peak on the Earth are present on the surface of planet Mars. Mars has two moons Phobo’s and Diemo’s. Researchers originally thought that Phobo’s is nearing Mars at a rate of 1.8meter every hundred years; at that rate, it will crash into Mars in 50 million years. A day on Mars lasts 1.03 Earth days. Today the axial tilt on Mars is 25.19 degrees. The axial tilt on Mars is very close to Earth’s tilt, this means that Mars has seasons where are very similar to Earth.

 

Table-1. Seasons on Mars and Earth

   Season          Length of Season       Length of Season

                               on Earth                      on Mars

   Spring             93 Earth Days           94 Martian Days

   Summer          93 Earth Days          178 Martian Days

   Autumn           90 Earth Days          142 Martian Days

   Win                 89 Earth Days          154 Martian Days

 

In 2008, NASA’s Phoenix lander set down on one part of the formation and found water ice just a few inches below the dry surface soil. Also William Boynton of the University of Arizona has detected telltale signs of water ice in the upper meter (three feet) of soil in a large region surrounding the Red Planet's South Pole. It may be better to characterize this layer as dirty ice rather than as dirt containing ice, because rock has a greater density than ice, this amount is more than 50 percent water ice by volume. This means that if one heated a full bucket of this ice-rich polar soil it would result in more than half a bucket of liquid water. In addition, NASA spacecraft have detected frozen water beneath the surface of Mars. Liquid water, on the other hand, is scarce. Why? On a warm summer day, ice doesn't melt; it vaporizes--skipping directly from solid to gas. This happens because the air pressure is so low. An examination of the rover Curiosity’s wheels provides evidence that it drove through moist clay and sand which stuck in great clumps upon the wheels. This clumping adhesion would have been possible only if the soil were moist. In addition, there is extensive evidence of ice frozen within the wheel’s wells of the rover, as well as what might be fungus. Given that these pictures were taken days and weeks apart and despite the fact that the rover wheels are designed to allow debris to be discarded; this can only mean that what appears to be ice and perhaps fungus was adhering to the wheel wells. That certainly increases the probability that fungi, algae, and lichens are flourishing on Mars.

 

Ever since that question has been asked, it's been a mystery and many scientists and astronomers have come out with many theories about what lies out there and what they look like, if any exist. However, these theories will remain only as theories before someone can actually find evidence of what lies out there. Today, we need a planet like Earth so that just before the death of Earth we could go there and save our generation. Our scientists have been continuously trying to find out the another planet where there may be a possibility of life but they could not succeed till today. It has become a real need of the Mankind to carry on its generation.

 

II. DUKY’S THEORY

For centuries, human have pondered the possibility of life on other planets and tried to prove its existence. Even before the first shuttle or probe was launched, stories of life on other planets and life invading our own planet, were published prolifically. Whether it’s a desire to connect with others or a burning curiosity to know whether we are truly alone, the question of life on other planets fascinates people from every walk of life. Duky’s theory is based on the scientific data, and on the basis of this data it is explored that how, when and where life will begin on another planet after Earth in future.

 

As, it is known that the Sun’s size and luminosity will have been continuously increasing until it’s become Red Giant Star and due to its increasing size and luminosity, nearer planets like Mercury, Venus and Probably Earth will get merged in the Sun. It is briefly discussed in this paper that what will happen when Mercury will get merged in the Sun.

 

Due to increasing size and luminosity of the Sun, temperature on Mercury will get increased dramatically. After 2-3 billion years when temperature will become too high then Mercury will get broken into pieces and eventually it will get merged into the Sun after 1 duky’s Unit. Scientists claimed that Mercury planet will get merged in the Sun but they don’t know when it would happen. So, Duky’s Unit (DU) is proposed to express the time from now to the time when Mercury will get merged in the Sun.

 

Meanwhile, due to decreasing distance between the Sun

and the Venus, the temperature on Venus will increase and due to increasing the temperature on Venus the upper atmosphere will get heated up by the solar wind. In a continuous process of few million years the clouds of sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide will escape Venus gravity and eventually it will get drifted off into the space. The atmosphere of Venus will become one of the most tenuous atmospheres in the Solar System. Eventually, the solid part of the Venus will remain, that would be similar to Mercury. At that time Venus would have no Moon, no Acids clouds and has tenuous atmosphere, i.e. Venus will become first planet (Mercury’s Twin) of our solar system after 1 DU.

 

Scientists said that after 1 billion years our Sun’s luminosity will be 10% greater and temperature on Earth will be 100 degrees hotter. At that time the ice of Earth Poles will have melted out and all the Earth land will get covered with water. Due to continuous process of increasing temperature, water will boil on the surface that will make water vapors. After 23 million years or thereabout the moisture in the air will become very good to trap infra-red radiation, as the Earth will warms up, the oceans would evaporate even more, we trap more heat and so the Earth will warm up more. When the Earth would warm up more again we will trap even more heat and as the effect within few million years Earth will get covered with the blanket of water vapors. And due to increasing temperature and pressure, volcanoes of Earth will become active and due to this; volcanic eruption will blast billions of tons of sulfur high into the atmosphere, there sulfur will mix with water vapors and form conc. Sulfuric acids. Resulting in a continuous process of few more million years the whole Earth will get covered with sulphuric acids cloud. Due to incredible heat (hot enough to melt lead) likely would evaporate away all water into the upper atmosphere, where it will dissociate by ultraviolet light into ionized atomic hydrogen and oxygen. Some of the oxygen would combine into carbon dioxide, but most of the oxygen and hydrogen will just blow away by the "solar wind" because Earth will have lost its protective magnetosphere, that keeps Earth safe. So within few more million years Earth atmosphere will get enriched with carbon dioxide. As it is known that Earth’s moon is receding away from Earth so before 1 DU, Moon will have been gone away from Earth. When this would happen, may be its possible that our Earth will get started to slow down one spin per million years or thereabouts. These would lead to the massive outpouring of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses that will give Earth its Hellish atmosphere. At that time standing on the surface of Earth, will be like meeting absolutely incredible situation. First of all, the sky will not be blue, it will be red, orange in color and this would be a hell real hell. That would be the end of Earth, because at that time Moon will have gone away plus atmosphere will have filled with carbon dioxide plus whole Earth land will have covered by sulfuric acid clouds. At that time not only Earth will become second planet of solar system but also become Venus Twin.  So, here it is concluded that Earth will probably become Venus that also explains “how Venus became Earth's "evil twin”.  If Venus had life in past or in better words if life was ever present on Venus, then it was gone away like that.

 

Fourth Planet is Mars and possibility of life on Mars is a subject of significant interest to astrobiology due to its proximity and similarities to Earth. To date, no proof has been found of past or present life on Mars. This theory proves that Mars is the only planet where life will begin in future. Let’s explore it with the help of scientific data we have. First, surprisingly Scientists said that the actual surface area of Mars is almost exactly the same as all the dry land on Earth, all shrunk to fit together without the ocean. Second, the axial tilt on Mars is very close to Earth’s tilt, this means that Mars has seasons where are very similar to Earth. So there is no problem with the season on Mars for Living things. Third, according to our scientists after 50 million years from now phobo will crash on the surface of Mars. When that will happen, Mars would have one moon like Earth. This collision will be so hard and strong that phobo will get totally immersed in the surface of planet Mars as a result may be its possible that Mars will get tilted at 23.45 degree on a dot (the axial tilt on Mars is 25.19 degrees). As it is known that duration of day doesn’t effects the life but it may be possible that after collision Martian day will become 24hours on a dot after 1DU (one day on Mars lasts 24.6 hours). Due to the collision not only the molten lava will come out on the Surface but also volcanos will become active. From which cryovolcano (ice volcano) would erupt water, ammonia or methane, while other volcanoes would erupt Carbon dioxide, Sulfur, Nitrogen, Argon, Helium, Neon, Methane, Hydrogen and massive amount of steam which will condense into rain and thereby supplying the planet with water. So, after collision Mars atmosphere will get filled with gases given out by volcanos. As NASA spacecraft have detected on a warm summer day, ice doesn't melt; it vaporizes--skipping directly from solid to gas. This happens because the air pressure is so low. But after collision a small boost in pressure would be enough to allow ice to melt and water to flow under a warm summer Sun. NASA scientists have found a big sheet of ice about 2 or 3 inches deep under the surface of Mars and William Boynton proved that if one heated a full bucket of the Martian ice-rich polar soil, it would result in more than half a bucket of liquid water. After the collision, the ice on the surface will start melting and within a few million years plenty of water will be floating on its surface that will make ponds, lakes, rivers and ocean soon. A close examination of the rover Curiosity’s certainly increases the probability that fungi, algae, and lichens are flourishing on Mars. It indicates that life might have started on Mars. After the collision when temperature and pressure would get raised; water ice will become water. Then microbial life forms such as ‘Tardigrade’ would get emerged on Mars and would play an important role in life circle of Mars because these are known to be able to go for decades without food or water to survive direct exposure to dangerous radiations etc. Liquid Water will appear to be a key component for the origin of life when Mars will get filled with all kinds of mineral including lots of iron. Life will begin in a primordial soup, a warm part containing energy and atmospheric elements to make amino acids. Overtime RNA will form, when primordial soup will have enriched with all kinds of chemicals needed to make RNA. No doubt RNA is not capable of making life on its own, but in primordial soup, RNA will change and it will start behaving differently in the absence of oxygen. It will shape-shift and all of a sudden, will become instruction carrier kind of like DNA and when they will chain up with the Iron from the soup, it will perform a single electron transfer that’s mean it will jump start the reaction needed for photosynthesis and respiration. RNA together with iron will create the bases for breathing things. So, RNA will interact with some sort of chemical reaction or spark and it will start creating bacteria. Then under water bacteria would begin to use water, carbon dioxide and the Sun’s energy to produce carbohydrate in order to survive, this process is called photosynthesis that will inject vast amount of oxygen into sea water and eventually in our atmosphere. These bacteria’s will be the seeds from which the life will develop. As the time pass, they will diversify into different groups. Some will remain attach to one another and will form chain, we know them today as algae and others will form hollow balls that will connect upon themselves creating a body within internal cavity. They will be the first multi-cell organisms or direct descendent. As more variations will appear the life will grow and become more diverse. Some organisms will become more mobile like undeveloped as a mouth that opened into a gut. Others will have bodies stiffen by an entail rod. They will understandable develop sense organ around their front end. A related group will develop bodies sub-divided into segment with little projection on either side that will help them to move around on the sea floor. Some of these segmented creatures will develop hard protective skins which will give their body some rigidity. Soon, the lakes, ponds etc. will get filled with great variety of elements and then after some more million years later some of these creatures will come out of the water and will venture into the land. There life will branch into a multitude of different species that will exploit this new environment in all kinds and ways. One group of them will develop elongated scalps on their backs, which over many generations will eventually get developed into wings, the insects will arrive; life will move into the air and thereby diversify into million forms. Meanwhile back into the ponds and lakes those creatures with the stiffening rod in their body will have strengthened it by incasing it in bone. A skull will develop with hinges jaw so they could grab and hold onto prey. They will grow bigger and eventually they will develop fins equipped with muscles that will able them to swim with speed and power. So, fish now will dominate the water of Mars. One group of them will develop ability to gulp air from the water surface. Their fragile fins will become weight supported legs and after 190 million years a few of these back bone creatures will follow the insects onto the land. They will be the amphibians with red skins and they will have to return to water to lay their eggs. But some of their descendents will evolve dry scaly skin and will break the liquid water by lying eggs with water tight shells. These creatures will become reptile as ancestors of today tortoises, snake, lizards & crocodile. During this process, some plants such as Tulsi will have evolved that will play a major role to develop ozone directly.  Later on when Mars will get enriched with the enough oxygen then ozone in the Mar's atmosphere will begin to develop by energetic ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O₂), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then will combine with unbroken oxygen atom (O₂) to create ozone, O₃. After some more million years, it shall be possible that Martian human would evolve on the Mars and with their evolution, they would change the way Mars looks on the ground and from the space. At that time, Mars will become third planet of solar system having one moon, water, oxygen and many types of lives similar to Earth (Earth’s Twin). So, the life will begin only on Mars after 1DU, as described in this paper.

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III. OBSERVATIONS

Our solar system has Sun and eight planets out of which four are terrestrial planet named Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Life only exists on Earth in our solar system. A method has proposed named Duky’s Changing Place Method (DCPM) that answers all these questions that always come into mind. It focuses only on how characteristics of terrestrial planets are shifting from one planet to another.

 

Table-2. Terrestrial planets of Solar System 1 RU ago.

Planet        Moon      Surface   Atmosphere Constituent                               

Nafria       None         Dry               tenuous atmosphere

Mercury   None         Lava          CO₂, H₂SO₄ clouds etc.

Venus       One        Water & Ice         N₂, O₂, ozone etc.

Earth        Two          Water Ice         CO₂, N₂, Argon etc.

Mars         ----            ------                    ----------------

 

According to Table-2, Nafria (Proposed planet) was the first planet 1Rommy’s Unit (RU) ago. It was a dry planet having tenuous atmosphere with no moon. Mercury was the second planet covered with sulfuric acid clouds having no moon. Venus was the third planet having water on the surface, oxygen in the atmosphere having one moon and all essential things that forms life. Earth was the fourth planet having water ice and dry surface, atmosphere filled with mostly carbon dioxide and having two moons. Mars was the fifth planet and it may probably had covered with Molten lava. We don’t know more about what kind of planet was Mars in future because it has become ancient history. Due to increasing size and luminosity of the Sun, Nafria had merged into the Sun about 1 Rommy’s Unit ago.

 

Table-3. Today’s terrestrial planets of Solar System

Planet        Moon        Surface       Atmosphere Constituent                              

Mercury    None        Dry              tenuous atmosphere

Venus       None        Lava          CO₂, H₂SO₄ clouds etc

Earth          One        Water & Ice         N₂, O₂, ozone etc

Mars         Two         Water Ice          CO₂, N₂, Argon etc

 

According to Table-3, after 1 Rommy’s Unit, Mercury become first planet of our solar system. It has no moon; its entire surface is dry i.e. water or any kind of liquid 0material is not present on its surface and it has tenuous atmosphere. So, today there is no possibility that life could start here in future. Move on to Venus, it has no moon; lava is floating on its surface; atmosphere has filled with Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen etc. and its entire surface has covered with sulfur dioxide and sulphuric acids clouds. So, today there is also very less possibility of life in future on Venus without any Moon. Now third planet is Earth. It has one moon; water is floating on its surface and ice on the poles, mountains, hills; Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon along with ozone in the atmosphere and having sufficient distance from the Sun. Therefore, life is running on it but as we know moon is receding away from it and temperature and luminosity of Sun is continuously increasing. So life will have gone away from Earth in future. Next is Mars, it has two moons; water ice on the poles and beneath the surface; CO₂, Nitrogen and Argon are present in its atmosphere. Most importantly in near future, one of its moon will get merge in it plus, size and luminosity of the Sun is continuously increasing that will bring life on Mars in future as it has number of ingredients that are important for life.

 

Table-4. Terrestrial planets of Solar System after 1DU.

Planet      Moon        Surface         Atmosphere Constituent

Venus     None         Dry                 tenuous atmosphere

Earth       None        Lava          CO₂, N₂ & Acids cloud

Mars         One     Water & Ice      N₂, O₂, Argon & ozone

 

After 1 DU, from table-4 we observe that, Mercury will have merged in the Sun, Venus will have no moon; its entire surface will be dry i.e. water or any type of liquid will not be floating on its surface and its atmosphere will have become tenuous atmosphere. So, Venus will become Mercury’s Twin. Secondly, Earth will have no moon; molten lava will be floating on its surface; atmosphere will have enriched with carbon dioxide and nitrogen and whole surface will get covered by clouds of sulfuric acid plus sulfur dioxide. All data is giving us signs that not only the life will have gone away from Earth but it will become Venus Twin after 1DU. Thirdly, Mars will have one moon; water and other liquid materials will be floating on its surface; atmosphere will have enriched with Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon etc. and blanket of Ozone layer will have formed in the atmosphere. So, life will begin on Mars and it will become Earth’s Twin after 1DU or thereabout.

 

So, DCPM unlocks the question and tells us that Life was on Venus about 1 Rommy’s Unit ago, now it’s on Earth and after 1 duky’s Unit life will begin on Mars. But still some more questions arise; what is the roll of asteroid belt in our solar system? From DCPM, we notice that characteristics of only terrestrial planets are changing that are inside the Asteroid belt. So it indicates that characteristics of terrestrial planet shifts from one planet to another and Mars will be the last planet on which life will begin in future. When Mercury will merge in the Sun then Mercury will die but it’s characteristics properties will get shifted to another planet next to it. In a nutshell, Venus will become Mercury’s Twin, Earth will become Venus Twin and Mars will become Earth’s Twin and no one will become Mars Twin. So, in that sense it will not only the end of Mercury Planet but end of Characteristics properties of Mars. Second, what will happen to Jupiter and other planets? It is possible that when our Sun will become white dwarf star then all the planets would get stopped revolving around Sun’s. Eventually they will leave Sun alone. May be its possible Jupiter, Saturn Uranus and Neptune will become bigger and more luminous like today’s Sun and they will start making its own solar system and eventually life will begin on their planets. As Sun’s size and luminosity is continuously increasing from its birth, So, life would evaporate from Earth and would rain on Mars and it would never come in a moment but it will take time. No doubt life would start on Mars after million years later but it would start only on Mars in our solar system. Till then we can try to go there and can start artificial life there by making greenhouse shelter there.

 

IV. CONCLUSION

It is now clear that due to increasing size & luminosity of the Sun, characteristics of terrestrial planets are switching from one to another planet. In better words, after 1 DU, when Mercury planet will get merged in the Sun, then Venus will become Mercury’s Twin, Earth will become Venus Twin and Mars will become Earth’s Twin. Therefore, from the above data it can be concluded that continuously increasing luminosity of the Sun and collision of Phobo's will start life on Mars after 1 DU.

 

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F ≠ ma its F = wa

Newton Second Law of Motion is wrong [F ≠ ma], the right formula to calculate force is F = wa.

Amendment in Newton's second law of motion

­­­­EFFECT OF VERTICAL FORCES ON NEWT­­­ON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

 

ABSTRACT

This paper proposed a more general expression to Newton’s second law of motion (F=ma) to calculate the force acting on the bodies under various factors that affects net force. As more force is required to move an object having larger mass but what happen when weight is changed by keeping its mass same. According to Newton’s second law, value of force varies, even if we apply same force. This happens because if force is not applied in vacuum, other forces add up to the equation ‘F=ma’ to get net force required to move the body. It is difficult to calculate other forces and add up to the given convention. This paper explains, weight includes the variation of all vertical forces. Hence, the simplest suggestive expression is ‘F=wa’ to study the horizontal motion of an object under vertical forces.

 

Keywords: Newton second law, effect of weight, vertical forces, mass, F=wa, F=ma.

 

INTRODUCTION

Philosophers in antiquity used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects, but thinkers such as Aristotle retained fundamental errors in understanding this concept of force due to an incomplete understanding of non-obvious force of friction. It was belief that a force is required to maintain motion, even at a constant velocity but actually this force is only required to stop its motion, not to move it with constant velocity. Galileo Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton eventually corrected most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force. With some mathematical insight, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved-on for nearly three hundred years. In many ways Newton’s work was a revolutionary departure from previous ideas about motion, it owed an immense debt to Galileo’s exhaustive study of motion. Newton and Galileo saw, as others had not, what motion would be like in a vacuum.

At the first, the laws of motion were proposed by Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). In observing objects around him, Aristotle noticed that an object required a force in order to start moving. If that force was removed, the object eventually came to stop. A large force resulted in a large velocity; a small force resulted in a small velocity. He concluded that force was related to velocity. In some situations, however, force resulted in no velocity. We could push and push on a heavy boulder, but it would never budge. In order to explain these observations, Aristotle added the concept of resistance. Resistance to motion can arise from two sources. If the resistance is offered by the object we are trying to move, then resistance is a property of that object – like the later ideas of mass and inertia. If the resistance is offered by the material through which the object moves, then resistance is like friction – a force exerted by other materials. Aristotle chose the latter, calling resistance a property of the medium through which an object moves. Combining the concept of resistance with the idea that force was related to velocity, Aristotle formulated his “second law;”

 

Velocity = force / resistance ^{[1] [2] [3] [4]}

 

It looks remarkably like Newton’s second law, except that it relates force to velocity instead of acceleration, and it defines resistance as a property of the medium, not the object being moved. When Aristotle tried to imagine what would happen in a vacuum, he saw an absurdity. In a vacuum, the resistance would be zero and the objects velocity would increase to infinity. Aristotle concluded that vacuums did not exist.

In the years from Aristotle to Galileo, Philoponus, Avicenna, and a number of other scientists grappled unsuccessfully with this problem of motion in a vacuum. John Philoponus (490-570AD)) attacked this problem of motion in a vacuum by suggesting that Aristotle’s relationship be modified as the speed (motion) is determined by the excess of the force taken as a difference to the resistance or

Velocity = force – resistance ^{[1] [2] [3] [4]}

 

If the resistance were zero, the object would move with a constant velocity directly proportional to the force. Consequently, motion in a vacuum would be possible. By suggesting that an object’s motion depends on the difference between force and resistance, Philoponus modification introduced what we have come to call the net force. However, Philoponus still related force to velocity, not acceleration.

Once projectile motion was understood in terms of an impetus in this way, it became possible for Philoponus to reassess the role of the medium: far from being responsible for the continuation of a projectile’s motion it is in fact an impediment to it. On this basis Philoponus concludes, against Aristotle, that there is in fact nothing to prevent one from imagining motion taking place through a void. As regards the natural motion of bodies falling through a medium, it was Aristotle’s contention that the speed is proportional to the weight of the moving bodies and indirectly proportional to the density of the medium. Philoponus repudiates this view by appeal to the same kind of experiment that Galileo was to carry out centuries later. ^[5]

Avicenna (A.D. 980-1037) proposed a different modification of Aristotle’s relationship. Avicenna suggested that objects themselves have a property, which he called mail, that resists a change in motion. Objects moving in a vacuum would continue moving forever, not speed up forever as Aristotle had supposed. Since Avicenna had never seen objects that moved at a constant velocity forever, he, too, concluded that vacuums do not exist. Like Aristotle, Avicenna failed to pursue the question of what would happen if. ^[4] He developed a theory of motion in ‘The Book of Healing’. In this book, he made a distinction between the inclination (tendency to motion) and force of a projectile, and concluded that motion was a result of an inclination transferred to the projectile by the thrower, and that projectile motion in a vacuum would not cease. He viewed inclination as a permanent force whose effect is dissipated by external forces such as air resistance. The theory of motion presented by Avicenna was probably influenced by the 6th-century Alexandrian scholar John Philoponus. His theory of motion was thus consistent with the concept of inertia in Newton's first law of motion. Avicenna also referred to as being proportional to weight times velocity and that such a moving body would eventually be slowed down by the air resistance around it. ^{[6] [7] [8]}

John Buridan’s (1301–1359/1361) major contribution here was to develop the theory of impetus to explain projectile motion. The theory of impetus probably did not originate with Buridan, but his account appears to be unique in that he entertains the possibility that it might not be self-dissipating: “after leaving the arm of the thrower, the projectile would be moved by an impetus given to it by the thrower, and would continue to be moved as long as the impetus remained stronger than the resistance, and would be of infinite duration were it not diminished and corrupted by a contrary force resisting it or by something inclining it to a contrary motion”. He also contends that impetus is a variable quality whose force is determined by the speed and quantity of the matter in the subject, so that the acceleration of a falling body can be understood in terms of its gradual accumulation of units of impetus. ^[11] The implanted impetus is caused by a mover who imparts an initial velocity to a projectile; the impetus is proportional to the velocity:  in fact, Buridan gave it a mathematical formulation:

 

Impetus = weight × velocity ^{[8] [9] [10] [11]}

 

When a mover sets body in motion, he implants into it a certain impetus, that is, a certain force enabling a body to move in the direction in which the mover starts it, be it upwards, downwards, side wards, or in a circle.  The implanted impetus increases in the same ratio as the velocity.  It is because of this impetus that a stone move on after the thrower has ceased moving it but because of the resistance of the air (and also because of the gravity of the stone) which strives to move it in the opposite direction to the motion caused by the impetus, the latter will weaken all the time. Therefore, the motion of the stone will be gradually slower, and finally the impetus is so diminished or destroyed that the gravity of the stone prevails and moves the stone towards its natural place. ^[12]

Galileo (1564-1642) eventually made the mental jump from the observed to the hypothetical – from motion in everyday experience to motion without resistance. As shown in the figure-1

Figure-1 Galileo Experiment

 

As going down an incline, he reasoned, a ball accelerates. If he placed a second incline facing the first, the ball would move up the second incline almost to the same height from which it had been released on the first incline. Mentally, Galileo removed friction and concluded that the ball would continue up the second incline until it reached exactly the same height from which it had been released. Next, Galileo decreased the angle of the second incline. Each time, the ball traveled until it almost reached the same height from which it had been released. At lower inclines, however, the ball had to travel farther. If the angle of incline were reduced to zero, Galileo reasoned, the ball would continue moving forever. ^{[13] [14] [15]}

It is only the resistance offered by the surface and the air that keeps this from being so. Called the law of inertia, Galileo’s conclusion paved the way for Newton’s first law of motion. Because of friction, Galileo was never able to actually observe an object moving along a level board with an unchanging velocity. But he could mentally remove friction and imagine what would happen. His guide in performing these imaginary experiments was the simplicity of the mathematical relationships he had discovered from actual measurements. A commitment to experimentation and simplicity allowed Galileo to see what others had not seen motion in a frictionless world. Galileo perceived experiments in hypothetical system when all resistive forces are eliminated from the system, then body once set in motion always remains in state of uniform velocity (constant velocity). Thus Galileo on the basis of such experiments perceived that a moving body maintains its constant speed in straight line unless no external force acts on it. Thus Galileo put forth that movement of body with constant velocity is natural tendency of body, and it stops due to resistive forces Galileo’s law is given by

 

“A body moving on a level surface will continue to move in the same direction at a constant speed unless disturbed.” ^{[16] [17] [18]}

 

It stated law of inertia that body will maintain its uniform motion forever (in hypothetical system). However, such a system is completely hypothetical, as it has to be devoid of resistive forces. Such system does not exist on the Earth as Gravitational forces and frictional forces are always present.

Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650), in 1644 in his book Principles of Philosophy elaborated Galileo’s law of inertia in first two laws of motion 3-4. Further, Descartes third law of motion explains the collision of moving bodies; it is independent of Galileo’s law of inertia or Aristotle’s assertion. But Newton’s third law of motion has resemblance with this law.

 

Law 1

Each thing, in so far as it is simple and undivided, always remains in the same state, as far as it can, and never changes except as a result of external causes. Hence we must conclude that what is in motion always, so far as it can, continues to move.

Law 2

Every piece of matter, considered in itself, always tends to continue moving, not in any oblique path but only in a straight line.

Law 3

When a moving body collides with another, if its power of continuing in a straight line is less than the resistance of the other body, it is deflected so that, while the quantity of motion is retained, the direction is altered; but if its power of continuing is greater than the resistance of the other body, it carries that body along with it, and loses a quantity of motion equal to that which it imparts to the other body. ^{[19] [20] [21]}

 

It is evident that Descartes first two laws are just other form of Galileo’s law of inertia. Descartes third law of motion is independent of Galileo’s Laws of inertia. Thus it is Descartes original work and preceded Newton’s third law of motion. Neither Galileo nor Descartes gave any hint to find out the magnitude of force required for change the constant velocity of body.

Isaac Newton (1643-1727) built upon Galileo’s work, adding the concepts of force and mass to Galileo’s descriptions of motion. Newton’s second law of motion explains how the velocity of an object changes when it is subjected to an external force. The law defines a force to be equal to change in momentum (mass times velocity) per change in time. Newton also developed the calculus of mathematics, and the "changes" expressed in the second law are most accurately defined in differential forms. A modern statement of Newton's Second Law is a vector equation:

 

F = dp/dt

{\displaystyle {\vec {F}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} {\vec {p}}}{\mathrm {d} t}},}

where ‘p’ {\displaystyle {\vec {p}}}is the momentum of the system and ‘F’ {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}}is the net force. If a body is in equilibrium, there is zero net force by definition (balanced forces may be present nevertheless). In contrast, the second law states that if there is an unbalanced force acting on an object it will result in the object's momentum changing over time. By the definition of momentum;

 

F = dp/dt = d(mv)/dt

{\displaystyle {\vec {F}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} {\vec {p}}}{\mathrm {d} t}},}

{\displaystyle {\vec {F}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} {\vec {p}}}{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} \left(m{\vec {v}}\right)}{\mathrm {d} t}},}where m is the mass and {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}}v is the velocity. If Newton's second law is applied to a system of constant mass m may be moved outside the derivative operator. The equation then becomes

 

F = m dv/dt{\displaystyle {\vec {F}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} {\vec {p}}}{\mathrm {d} t}},}

 

{\displaystyle {\vec {F}}=m{\frac {\mathrm {d} {\vec {v}}}{\mathrm {d} t}}.}By substituting the definition of acceleration, the algebraic version of Newton's Second Law is derived:

‘F = ma’ ^{[16] [17] [18]}{\displaystyle {\vec {F}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} {\vec {p}}}{\mathrm {d} t}},}

 

For an external applied force, the change in velocity depends on the mass of the object. A force will cause a change in velocity; and likewise, a change in velocity will generate a force. The equation works both ways. Newton's Second Law asserts the direct proportionality of acceleration to force and the inverse proportionality of acceleration to mass. Accelerations can be defined through kinematic measurements.

 

EXAMINATION OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

It has been ages since Newton’s second law of motion is being used in every nook and corner of the physics. It is observed that results with the convention ‘F=ma’ doesn’t show net force as it encounters various forces on Earth. It seems if mass and acceleration remains same but weight increases w.r.t. vertical forces, force will have to increase. This paper considers some analysis of the formula. There are some such circumstances.

 

Case-I

Let some force is applied to a stationary object of mass 100kg under the gravity of Pluto and Earth, i.e. weight of the same object becomes 62N on Pluto and 980N on Earth. How much force is needed to get final velocity of 1m/s in 10sec on both planets?

Mass = 100Kg             Weight = 62N

Mass = 100Kg             Weight = 980N

Acceleration = [(v - u) ÷ t]

a = [(1 - 0) ÷ 10]

a = 0.1m/s²

On Pluto,

Force = mass × acceleration

F = 100kg × 0.1m/s²

F = 10N

On Earth,

Force = mass × acceleration

F = 100kg × 0.1m/s²

F = 10N

In this case, the object of mass100kg produced final velocity of 1m/s in 10 seconds when 10N force was applied to it under different gravities (weighs 62N and 980N). It concludes that we need same force under different gravities to move the same object with same final physical quantities (final velocity, initial velocity and time) but in actual practice, how is it possible? Since object weighs different under different gravities, therefore as per its weight due to change in gravity, it actually needs different force to move with same final physical quantities. As per our opinion, it is the weight which actually works not only the mass because weight includes the variation of all vertical forces such as mass and gravity but in Newton’s law it only includes the variation of mass not the gravity. In fact, ‘F=ma’ explains that if weight increases due to mass, it needs more force but if weight increases due to gravity it needs same force, which seems to be quite imprecise. It seems that more force is required to move an object with same velocity and acceleration on the surface of the Earth rather than on the Pluto. This is because Earth has more gravity than Pluto which increases the weight.

 

Case-II

Let, take an iron block of mass 1kg (weight 9.8N on Earth) and place it on the wooden table. Now, the iron block is hit with a paint ball gun from one-meter distance with 120N force then acceleration would be,

F = ma

120N = 1kg. a

a = 120N ÷ 1kg

a = 120m/s²

Further, take an iron block of mass 10kg (weight 98N on Earth) and place it on the wooden table. Now, the iron block is hit with the same paint ball gun from same distance with same force then acceleration would be,

F = ma

120N = 10kg. a

a = 120N ÷ 10kg

a = 12m/s²

It is clear that if same force is applied, when mass or weight increases the acceleration decreases with the same rate.

Furthermore, take an iron block of mass 1kg (weight .62N on Pluto) and place it on the wooden table. Now, the iron block is hit with the same paint ball gun from same distance with same force then acceleration would be,

F = ma

120N = 1kg. a

a = 120N ÷ 1kg

a = 120m/s²

In another scenario, take mass 1kg and magnet is placed beneath the wooden table and let the weight of the same block becomes 98N. Now, hit it with the paint ball gun from distance 1meter (i.e. with 3N force) keeping all other physical properties same.

F = ma

120N = 1kg × a

a = 120m/s²

 

	Weight changed due to Earth gravity	Weight changed due to Earth gravity	Weight changed due to Pluto gravity	Weight changed due to magnet
Applied Force	120N	120N	120N	120N
Mass	1kg	10kg	1kg	1kg
Weight	9.8N	98N	0.62N	98N
Acceleration	120m/s2	12m/s2	120m/s2	120m/s2

Table-1

 

Above observation concludes that it doesn’t matter, weight increases hundred times or thousand due to external forces; if same force applied to same mass, acceleration will remain same. In actual practice, it is not possible, as various external forces such as gravity, effect of magnet etc. act on body. Therefore, net force would be

F = ma + effect of magnet/other forces

However, it is not easy to identify and calculate each and every vertical external force acting on the body. Hence, the paper suggests a new equation that includes the variation of all vertical forces when force is applied horizontally.

 

EQUATION OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION UNDER THE EFFECT OF VERTICLE FORCES

Finding formula of force was a puzzle for researchers and hence researchers made time-to-time amendments. In this series, this paper tries to explain that force encounters various external forces when applied under gravity, i.e. force acts differently when applied horizontally under variation of external vertical forces. It is noted that weight includes the variation of all vertical forces. Hence, the paper suggests that

 

‘Second law of motion under gravity should state that force applied on a body is directly proportional to the weight and acceleration’

 

F α wa

F = k. wa

Where ‘k’ is a constant factor called the duke’s constant; includes all vertical external forces, i.e. gravity etc. (in SI units of ‘k’ is: s²/m).

 

NUMERICAL TREATMENT

This paper explains that weight changes when it encounters vertical forces, hence a new equation is suggested that includes all vertical forces, i.e. ‘F = k wa’. The equation explains that if mass remain same but weight changes due to vertical forces, then acceleration varies w.r.t. change in weight.

Let, take an iron block of mass 1kg (weight 9.8N on Earth) and place it on the wooden table. Now, the iron block is hit with the same paint ball gun from same distance with same force then acceleration would be,

F = k. wa

120N = 1s²/m × 9.8N × a

a = 120N ÷ (1s²/m × 9.8N)

a = 12.3m/s²

Further, take an iron block of mass 10kg (weight 98N on Earth) and place it on the wooden table. Now, the iron block is hit with the same paint ball gun from same distance with same force then acceleration would be,

F = k. wa

120 = 1s²/m × 98N × a

a = 120N ÷ (1s²/m × 98N)

a = 1.23m/s²

It is clear that if same force is applied, when mass or weight increases the acceleration decreases with the same rate.

Furthermore, take an iron block of mass 1kg (weight .62N on Pluto) and place it on the wooden table. Now, the iron block is hit with the same paint ball gun from same distance with same force then acceleration would be,

F = k. wa

120N = 1s²/m × 0.62N × a

a = 120N ÷ (1s²/m × 0.62N)

a = 193m/s²

In another scenario, we take mass 1kg and magnet is placed beneath the wooden table and let the weight of the same block become 98N. Now, hit it with the paint ball from same distance with same force keeping all other physical properties then acceleration would be,

F = wa

120N_g = 1s²/m × 98N × a

a = 120N_g ÷ (1s²/m × 98N)

a = 1.23m/s²

 

	Weight changed due to Earth gravity	Weight changed due to Earth gravity	Weight changed due to Pluto gravity	Weight changed due to magnet
Applied Force	120N	120N	120N	120N
Mass	1kg	10kg	1kg	1kg
Weight	9.8N	98N	0.62N	98N
Acceleration	12.3m/s2	1.23m/s2	193m/s2	1.23m/s2

Table-2

 

Here, the mass was same but weight was increased. Hence, the acceleration is 1.23m/s² as it includes all vertical forces, i.e. force due to magnet force, gravity etc. It tries to convey that weight includes all vertical forces.

EFFECT OF ‘F=k. wa’ ON OTHER PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

I) WORK DONE

When a force acts on a body or object, it causes the object to move to cover a distance. Furthermore, sometimes it happens that the direction of the moving object is not as same as the direction of the force. Moreover, in these cases the component of force that acts in the direction of the movement causes work to be done. In simple words, work refers to the force you apply to an object to cause a change in its position or when the object moves and cover some distance.

 

‘Net work done = m × a × S‘

 

When work is done under gravity then it directly encounters various external vertical forces. The more vertical forces, the more work will have to be done. Therefore, net work done should be directly proportional to the weight instead of mass only, as weight includes variation of all vertical forces. Hence the net work done should be

 

For Horizontal,

Net work done under gravity = k × weight × acceleration × Displacement

‘Workdone = k. w × a × S’

 

For e.g. If an object of mass 10kg is dragged horizontally at an acceleration of 1.2m/s² to 100m under the gravity of Earth and Pluto, then calculate work done on both planets?

Earth,

Net Work done against gravity = k × weight × acceleration × Displacement

W = 1s²/m × 98N × 1.2m/s² × 100m

W = 11760Joule

Pluto,

Net Work done against gravity = k × weight × acceleration × Displacement

W = 1s²/m × 6.2kgm/s² × 1.2m/s² × 100m

W = 744Joule

In this case, it is observed that when 10kg mass is dragged horizontally at an acceleration of 1.2m/s² to 100m under the Earth’s gravity, then work done will be 11760J whereas under the gravity of Pluto when same mass is dragged to same distance at the rate of same acceleration, then the work done will be 744J. It concludes that work done is directly affected by gravity. Here the unit is Joule gravity but not Joule, because the work is done under gravity.

 

II) POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy is energy that is stored or conserved in an object or substance. This stored energy is based on the position, arrangement or state of the object or substance.

Potential Energy = Force × Displacement

 

‘P.E. = mgh’

 

For e.g. A body of mass 35kg is lifted to a height of 4m under the gravity of Earth and Pluto. What is the gravitational potential energy on both planet?

Earth,

P.E. = mgh

P.E. = 35kg × 9.8m/s² × 4m

P.E. = 1372J

Pluto,

P.E. = mgh

P.E. = 35kg × .62m/s² × 4m

P.E. = 86.8J

 

In this case, it is observed that a mass 35kg has 1372J potential energy if it is lifted to a height of 4m under Earth’s gravity while on the other side the same object has 86.8J potential energy when it is lifted to same height under the gravity of the Pluto. The observations conclude gravity directly affects the potential energy.

 

III) KINETIC ENERGY

In physics, the kinetic energy (KE) of an object is the energy by virtue of its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity and measured as

 

‘K.E. = ½ mv²’

 

The above equation of Kinetic energy should be used only when an object is moving without gravity but when an object moves horizontally under gravity, it directly encounter gravity so the equation should be,

 

‘K.E. = ½ wv²’

For e.g. A ball of mass 1kg is thrown so that it has a velocity of 11m/s under the gravity of the Earth and the Pluto. What is the kinetic energy?

Earth,                                     

K.E. = k. ½ wv²

K.E. = 1s²/m × ½ × 9.8N × (11m/s)²

K.E. = 1s²/m × ½ × 9.8N × 121m²/s²

K.E. = 592.9J

Pluto,                                   

K.E. = ½ wv²

K.E. = 1s²/m × ½ × 1.6N × (11m/s)²

K.E. = 1s²/m × ½ × 1.6N × 121m²/s²

K.E. = 96.8Joule

In this case, it is observed that when a mass 1kg thrown with a velocity of 11m/s then it generates 592.9J kinetic energy on Earth whereas when same object thrown at same velocity on Pluto (changed gravity) it will generate 96.8J of kinetic energy. Therefore, it clears that gravity directly affects the kinetic energy.

 

CONCLUSION

It is observed that when a body encounters external forces then the net force equals to the addition of ‘F=ma’ and external forces. There we have to calculate external forces to get net force, which makes it complicated to calculate it. This study explains that weight includes the variation of all vertical forces, i.e. net force should be equal to the product of weight and acceleration which also holds present Newton’s second law.

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Author, Amritpal Singh Nafria, would like to thank Dr. Amit Bansal for his useful discussion during this research work.

 

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